What is Patriarchy?

I was just asked to define patriarchy in two sentences. Let me try!

A Definition of Patriarchy

In patriarchal societies, prestigious positions are dominated by men; this reinforces beliefs that men are more competent in socially valued domains, deserving of deference, and speak with authority. Feeling entitled to higher status, men may react aggressively if given insufficient respect.

Basically, I suggest we combine representative indicators of both material and cultural inequalities:

(1) Men’s dominance in parliaments, business leadership, senior management, and cultural production;

(2) Widespread beliefs that men as a group deserve status, so are revered as knowledgeable authorities, whose wisdom carries more weight.

Material inequalities (like gender pay gaps) are only part of the story. We also need to attend to how people are perceived and treated, their beliefs and desires.

The US Senate - for example - is 75% male. Americans also tend to perceive men as agentic, assertive leaders (Early 2020).

Female schooling has soared, but analysis of a 200 million word corpus of US print media (1930-2009) finds that men are still more likely to be called ‘intelligent’. ‘Genius’ is still reserved for men. Even though women have closed the gap in attainment, hierarchy is preserved through culture.

Material and cultural dimensions of patriarchy are mutually reinforcing.

When members of a group are seen as more skilled in socially valued domains, they tend to be given greater reverence (Ridgeway 2022). Wealth, power and specialist knowledge enhance status and the capacity for ideological persuasion. Since high status individuals’ ideas are widely heeded, they’re more able to persuade everyone else that inequalities are entirely just.

Britain’s Industrial Revolution saw the rise of the male breadwinner (Griffin 2020). Women’s work was equally fundamental to social reproduction: they cooked, cleaned and cared for their kids in squalid slums. But this was totally unappreciated. They were still seen as delicate minors, unworthy of suffrage. 19th century patriarchy was both a function of economic dependence and cultural devaluation.

Male-majority industries continue to discriminate against women. In Silicon Valley this year, women repeatedly detailed how male programmers were given the benefit of the doubt, while their codes were endlessly scrutinised. They were presumed incompetent.

Chinese women are thriving in business, but are still blamed for their own rapes. “Most victims of sexual assault have failed to protect themselves adequately. Women must remember that flies do not bite an uncracked egg” - declares the He Nan government (Zheng 2022). Totaliarianism has suppressed feminist dissent, entrenched impunity for male violence, and perpetuated rape myths. Ashamed women suffer in silence, sometimes turning to suicide.

Women themselves may internalise these status beliefs. If colleagues gather for a meeting, women might volunteer to serve the tea. One Cambridge college actually institutionalises this practice. After Formal Hall, the most junior member is supposed to serve drinks to the most senior. Given academia’s gender hierarchies, you can imagine the scene…

Thanks to feminist mobilisation, 11 Latin American legislative assemblies now mandate gender parity. But this has not eroded a wider culture of machismo. 40% of Mexicans believe that a man is entitled to beat his unfaithful wife.

Patriarchal Backlash

If men feel entitled to deference, they may react aggressively to its denial. A woman is at highest risk of violence from a man she has jilted. In Mexico City, Carlos lashed out at Isabella when she tried to leave; he was furious that she said ‘no’.

Keen to soothe men’s sensitive egos, America women who out-earn their husbands tend to do a higher share of care work (Bertrand et al 2013). This restores his expected status.

Feminist organising can also trigger patriarchal backlash, among those who endorse gender status beliefs. In 1970s America, housewives mobilised to “Stop-ERA” (the Equal Rights Amendment). In contemporary Spain, women’s protests against male violence led to a rise in hostile sexism and more votes for the far right (Anduiza Perea et al 2023). The feminists had ‘gone too far’.

Is every country patriarchal?

If you accept that (i) patriarchy is both material and cultural, (ii) every single country fits this bill; then you may grant that (iii) every single country remains patriarchal.

But let me add several important caveats. Although the entire world is patriarchal, it has recently become much more gender equal. Patriarchy also takes different forms worldwide and exists on a spectrum.

Possible objections

Let me pre-emptively engage with possible objections:

(a) Women now earn more university degrees.

So what? Men still end up earning more and dominating positions of prestige.

(b) Prisoners are mostly men.

Yes, but even prisoners may feel entitled to respect and react aggressively to female insubordination. They too share status beliefs.

(c) Women are actually better off.

They are saved, while male soldiers are sacrificed. “Women and children first”.

Yes, it’s true that many societies have sacrificed men in battle. Rulers may see working-class men as expendable cannon fodder (as in imperial and contemporary Russia).

But we can distinguish between welfare (protecting women) and status (who is entitled to deference and respect).

In Russia, it is men who are lauded as heroes, listened to as leaders, and granted authority within their own homes. In 2017, the Duma decriminalised wife beating - as long as no bones are broken. Even working-class men are granted coercive power, while the police turn a blind eye (Human Rights Watch 2019).

So even if working class, ethnic minority and immigrant men are treated poorly, all may be immersed in a wider culture where men in general are granted greater authority.

(d) Patriarchy hurts men

Boys get bullied for being effeminate; they may also be reluctant to admit weakness and get help for depression.

Sure, I agree! Men are expected to be tough, while deviants face stigma and ostracism. “ARE YOU A MAN OR A MOUSE?” - my ex-army father bellowed at my little brother when he faltered. Widespread expectations of disapproval and derision motivate men to conform to prevailing gender ideologies. This reproduces a positive feedback loop: men continue to be stereotyped as strong, tough, agentic authorities.

Again, it’s important to distinguish between welfare and cultural status.

TLDR

In patriarchal societies, prestigious positions are dominated by men; this reinforces beliefs that men are more competent in socially valued domains, deserving of deference, and speak with authority. Feeling entitled to higher status, men (either as individuals or as a group) may get angry when given insufficient respect.

(Written on my phone, while flying to Barcelona to research feminist activism. Apologies, I was unable to add hyperlinks. Thank you for your forbearance!)